Case Studies

Since the building of the first power stations in the 1950s and 60s, nuclear power has grown to contribute 9–17 % of worldwide electricity every year. These ‘first-generation’ stations are now approaching the ends of their lives and must be decommissioned. Across the EU, over 200 power stations are due to be decommissioned by 2...

At the quantum level, fundamental particles have counterintuitive properties. They can exist in multiple states simultaneously, a phenomenon, termed “superposition” (electrons or photons can be both “1” and “0” at the same time), or be correlated in a nonclassical way, no matter how far apart they are (the so-called “entangleme...

Urban electronic waste (e-waste) contains elements critical to both modern technology and the European economy. Many of these, such as lithium used in batteries, or samarium used in permanent magnets, are produced outside of Europe. As these elements are responsible for the functionality of a technology, they are often referred...

Humidity at unsuitable levels can cause unwanted effects in a range of industrial and commercial sectors. In food production, high humidity can stimulate the growth of bacteria, mould, and fungi, causing food spoilage. During semiconductor production, humidity in process gases even at trace level can compromise quality, product...

Since 1967 the SI unit of time, the second, has been defined by caesium atomic clocks. In these, caesium atoms are probed with microwaves at frequencies that cause electrons to ‘jump’ into higher orbitals (~1010 Hz). When this occurs 9 192 631 770 times it defines one second. These clocks have enabled a wide range of modern tec...

Advanced manufacturing is recognised as a critical technology for the EU’ s economic security, and, since 2023, the EC’s Chips Act has mobilised over 80 billion euros in semiconductor manufacturing and R&D. Thousands of steps are required to produce silicon wafers and it is important that these are defect free and function as ...